Hace unas semanas, la NASA anunció un histórico descubrimiento, utilizando el telescopio espacial Hubble: se trata de la estrella más lejana jamás vista. Para conocer las implicancias que tiene el descubrimiento de esta estrella, su significado, su relación con el escritor J.R.R. Tolkien, autor de El Señor de los Anillos (1955) y aclarar dudas, conversamos con la Dra. Bárbara Rojas Ayala.
Adriana Bastías
Cuando pensamos en el universo, su inmensidad es una de las características que primero se nos viene a la mente. Las personas hemos mirado los cielos con ansias de saber más, de conocer los secretos más profundos que allí se encuentran, de saber incluso si somos los únicos seres que vivimos en el universo.
Hace unas semanas, la NASA anunció, con bombos y platillos, un histórico descubrimiento, utilizando el telescopio espacial Hubble: se trata de la estrella más lejana jamás vista. Y si bien este acontecimiento pudiese pasar como uno más, las expectativas que se generan a partir de él y la nueva de generación de telescopios que se están construyendo, varios en territorio nacional, genera grandes desafíos para la comunidad científica.
Para conocer las implicancias que tiene el descubrimiento de esta estrella, su significado, su relación con el escritor J.R.R. Tolkien, autor de El Señor de los Anillos (1955) y aclarar dudas, conversamos con Bárbara Rojas Ayala, astrónoma, Dra. en Astronomía de la Universidad de Cornell (Estados Unidos), académica del Instituto de Alta Investigación de la Universidad de Tarapacá e investigadora del Centro de Astrofísica y Tecnologías Afines (CATA), y socia de la Asociación Red de Investigadoras, quien respondió nuestras inquietudes.
¿Qué características tiene el telescopio Hubble?
Primero, el telescopio Hubble es un telescopio espacial, que se lanzó en abril de 1990; entonces, estamos hablando de un telescopio que va a cumplir 32 años desde que fue lanzado. Las características de este telescopio son observar en el (espectro) óptico, en el infrarrojo y, principalmente, en el ultravioleta y es un telescopio especial porque nuestra atmósfera no permite que los rayos ultravioletas pasen, lo cual es muy bueno, porque así no tenemos cáncer de piel. De ese modo, hay que salir de la atmosfera de nuestro planeta para poder observar el universo en estas longitudes de onda, en estas frecuencias que serían el ultravioleta; Hubble, en general, cumple esa misión. También, otra ventaja de tener un telescopio en el espacio es que no tienes la atmósfera y, por lo tanto, cuando observamos los fotones, una de las propiedades que tiene la luz es que interactúa con la materia. Así, al no tener átomos, ni moléculas de la atmósfera, entre la luz que viene de un objeto celeste y nosotros, tenemos una imagen como prístina, limpia. Cuando obtenemos esa información desde telescopios que se encuentran aquí en la Tierra, por ejemplo, los telescopios en Chile, hay que limpiar esas imágenes de esta como firma que deja la atmósfera; entonces, tenemos que sacar la atmósfera. Hay ventanas, por supuesto, dentro la atmósfera terrestre que permiten que pase el óptico, por ejemplo, pero aún así hay que limpiar. Partes del infrarrojo también pueden pasar, que son estas ventanas que deja la atmósfera para que los fotones pasen. Pero tu vas al espacio y te saltas esta atmósfera. Quizás otras características que sean más interesantes, en cuanto a investigación, es que entre los objetivos que tenía Hubble, hay que pensar que es un telescopio que va a cumplir 32 años, que quería investigar de qué estaban hechos, cuáles eran las características físicas y las dinámicas de cualquier cuerpo celeste, quería saber cuál es la naturaleza de los procesos que ocurren en los objetos estelares y galácticos, principalmente, una de las cosas que una piensa con Hubble es estudiar la evolución e historia del Universo, y confirmar cuál es la universalidad de las leyes físicas, esos eran los objetivos científicos primarios. Esto era más de tecnología, más de poder observar en el ultravioleta, además de tener otros instrumentos pare el óptico y el infrarrojo, también. Y otra característica especial del Hubble era tener un telescopio en el espacio, pero en el cual se podían hacer misiones de servicio. En general, se lanzan estos telescopios y no es con los telescopios terrestres que puedes ir a cambiar instrumentos, ir a ver si algo falla etc., y la gracia que tenía Hubble es que permitía eso. Existieron, creo, 5 misiones para Hubble de servicio en las que astronautas iban y solucionaban ciertos problemas o veían ciertos instrumentos, etc. De hecho, hasta instalaron una cosa que permitiría ir al futuro, cuando Hubble ya no funcione más, engancharlo o subirlo a una órbita mayor o traerlo de vuelta. Entonces, esas serían las características en general: es un telescopio espacial que nos permite observar el universo que, desde la Tierra, no podemos, por nuestra atmósfera, no permite ver el ultravioleta. Aunque tenemos ventanas en el óptico y el infrarrojo, nos saltamos la atmósfera, podemos ver todo bien como prístino, es un telescopio que iba a servir por mucho tiempo; de hecho, todavía se habla que Hubble va a servir por esta década.
¿Recientemente, qué se ha descubierto con el telescopio Hubble?
El último press release, que hizo Hubble con el telescopio, fue el descubrimiento de la estrella más lejana. Esto, quizá, dejó a mucha gente como: “ah, esto no importa, ya la estrella más lejana, guau”. Pero, es súper importante porque tenemos que pensar que la astronomía es como una arqueología del universo, en el sentido de que nosotros vemos siempre el pasado. La luz que es emitida por cuerpos celestes viaja por el universo a una velocidad que es fija; por lo tanto, cuando llega hacia nosotros es algo que ya ocurrió, no lo vemos instantáneamente. Entonces, entre más lejos estén estos objetos, lo que nosotros estamos viendo, en realidad, es el universo más joven, en etapas tempranas. De este modo, que esta estrella sea la estrella más lejana del universo, también nos indica que esta es una de las generaciones de estrellas, de las primeras generaciones de estrellas del universo. El universo comenzó con el Big Bang y tiene diferentes tipos de etapas en donde se empezaron a crear las primeras partículas; luego, se crearon los primeros átomos, etc. y luego se crearon las primeras estrellas cuando el universo tenía aproximadamente 400 millones de años, esto es lo que se conoce como el amanecer cósmico. Según el artículo científico, esta estrella que se descubrió sería de cuando el universo tenía, aproximadamente, 900 millones de años. Por tanto, sería como una de estas primeras estrellas, y si nosotros pensamos cuál es la edad del universo actual, que esta estimada en aproximadamente 13.800 millones de años, lo que estamos diciendo es que la luz de esta estrella se demoró 12.900 millones de años en llegar a nosotros. Así, estamos viendo este universo joven, es una ventana hacia el pasado del universo de estas primeras estrellas en estas galaxias cuando el universo era joven.
¿Qué características tiene el descubrimiento realizado por este telescopio?
Este descubrimiento se pudo realizar con Hubble, a través de imágenes en lo que se estaba viendo en realidad, lentes gravitacionales. Lo que tiene Hubble son imágenes, donde se está tratando de observar las primeras galaxias y esto es muy complejo, porque son objetos que estaban muy lejos, por tanto, son objetos muy débiles. Entonces, lo que se hace para observarlos es tratar de buscar estas galaxias a través de estos lentes gravitacionales, que son cúmulos de galaxias que están mucho más cercanos a nosotros, pero que son capaces por esa gran gravedad que tienen, estamos pensando en un grupo grande de galaxias, de deformar el espacio-tiempo. Así, actúan como actuaría un lente, ¿en qué sentido?, en que los rayos de luz, que van en una dirección, si se encuentran con uno de estos lentes gravitacionales pueden cambiar su trayectoria y pueden cambiar esa trayectoria hacia nosotros, lo que hace que nos lleguen más fotones de estos objetos que están muy distantes, del principio del universo y que sean magnificados. Cuando un objeto está magnificado, lo que uno quiere decir es que está detrás de uno de estos lentes gravitacionales y, por esta, como alineación entre el lente y el objeto que queremos observar, nos llegan más fotones de los que nos deberían llegar si este lente no estuviera. Entonces, este es un proyecto de tesis de doctorado de un estudiante, Brian Welch, que se encuentra en Johns Hopkins. Él está estudiando, en realidad, las primeras galaxias y está viendo estas galaxias que seguramente son una de las primeras galaxias, y estos lentes gravitacionales nos permiten ver. Las vemos deformes etc., pero se pueden estudiar, y tuvo la suerte que una de las estrellas de esta galaxia se encontrara justo en una posición, con respecto a este lente en que puede ser aún más magnificada y es, por eso, por lo que esta estrella sobresale y se puede observar. Según el artículo científico, decían que esta estrella ha estado en las imágenes magnificada por cerca de 3 años y es probable que siga estando así. Cuando el lente ya no esté en la posición correcta, porque el universo si se encuentra en movimiento no se va a poder observar. Por tanto, es a través de esta técnica como de lentes gravitacionales, de esta alineación de cuerpos celestes con respecto a nuestra línea de visión, la que permitió este descubrimiento. Entonces, es una galaxia que ha sido magnificada y una de las estrellas de esta galaxia se encontraba en la posición perfecta con respecto al lente para ser aun más magnificada, y que nosotros la podamos observar con el telescopio Hubble. Entre las características que tiene este objeto, se cree que es una estrella muy masiva, que seguramente tiene más de 50 veces la masa del sol, es una estrella de este universo joven, tenía unos 900 millones de años, recordar que el universo actual tiene 13.900 millones de años.
¿Qué nombre le pusieron a esta estrella y por qué?
Le pusieron de nombre Eärendel, que, para quienes les gusta Tolkien y todo eso, es como la estrella de la mañana, y tiene este nombre porque cuando aparecieron las primeras estrellas, alrededor de 400 millones de años después del Big Bang, es lo que se conoce como el amanecer cósmico; así, esta sería como la primera estrella, la estrella que se eleva.
¿Por qué es importante el descubrimiento de Eärende, la estrella de la mañana?
Es importante este descubrimiento porque es una ventana para este universo joven. Para darte una referencia nosotros cuando queremos estudiar una civilización antigua, por ejemplo, la civilización Chinchorro, lo que encontramos son los restos y los chinchorros dejaron sus momias, que son las más antiguas que se han preservado. Entonces, nosotros a través de eso que han dejado, en este caso las momias, podemos saber cosas sobre ellos. En el universo, nosotros tenemos, si queremos decir, nuestras propias momias que serían todo lo que queda de una estrella. Las estrellas tienen vidas, pero no es que estén vivas, sino que las estrellas nacen, tienen una evolución y luego, mueren y, al morir, dejan un resto. En estrellas como el sol, por ejemplo, sería una enana blanca, en estrellas un poco más masivas sería una estrella de neutrones y en estrellas muy masivas sería un agujero negro estelar, ya que sería este núcleo, el horno, donde se hacen las reacciones nucleares, es lo que queda al final. De este modo, para nosotros en el universo, podríamos pensar como momias a las estrellas de neutrones, las enanas blancas y los agujeros negros estelares, por ejemplo. Y eso nos cuenta que, si encontramos uno de estos objetos, este objeto fue antes una estrella de cierta masa, que vivió cierto tiempo y podemos estimar más o menos cuando estuvieron. Esto es algo que nos da la evolución. Pero, el descubrimiento de esta estrella sería como abrir una ventana hacia el pasado y no estudiar, por ejemplo, las momias Chinchorro, sino que abrir una ventana y ver a las personas que eran parte de esta civilización, a los chinchorros, haciendo sus cosas en el momento en que ellos vivieron. Esa es la importancia de este descubrimiento de poder saber, no que existieron porque descubrimos sus momias, sino que verlos en ese tiempo. Estamos viendo, ese universo, las estrellas, por lo menos una estrella cuando el universo tenía 900 millones de años, o sea, cuando era un universo joven.
Con respecto a este descubrimiento, ¿qué se podría adicionar a la información que se conoce con el telescopio espacial James Webb?
James Webb es, como el sucesor del Hubble, este nuevo telescopio que fue lanzado en la Navidad del año pasado. Es un telescopio infrarrojo espacial, por lo tanto, tiene las mismas ventajas de no tener la atmósfera etc., es bastante más grande que el Hubble, su espejo es de mayor tamaño. Y con James Webb, lo que se espera es obtener un espectro de esta estrella porque lo que se tiene ahora es fotometría de la estrella y como es un telescopio infrarrojo, su función es observar y obtener un espectro en esa longitud de onda, porque recordemos que también existe un corrimiento al rojo. Entonces, como esta estrella está tan lejos, hay un corrimiento bastante importante al rojo, por lo que fotones se hayan omitido en el ultravioleta nos llegan como si fueran infrarrojo. James Webb puede observar esos fotones y nos va a dar una idea mucho mejor de las características físicas de esta estrella, cuál es la composición de estas primeras estrellas del amanecer cósmico.
¿Qué otros descubrimientos podríamos esperar en el futuro con la utilización de estos telescopios?
Pensando solo en este descubrimiento, lo que yo esperaría es que ahora estuvieran colegas observando estas imágenes que tienen que ver con lentes gravitacionales, en los cuales se están viendo objetos, galaxias que son muy jóvenes y ver en estas imágenes qué hay, que se han tomado a través de los años con Hubble. Si es que, quizá, se ha perdido información de poder detectar otras estrellas, que también sean una de estas primeras estrellas y observar y tratar de estudiar las estrellas en esas edades, cuando el universo era joven y utilizar James Webb no solo para saber que están ahí, sino que obtener sus espectros etc. Así, tener una idea mejor, porque cuando uno piensa esto es astrofísica estelar o cuando uno lo enseña en la universidad, las primeras estrellas, las que se llaman estrellas de población III, que eran las estrellas que primero se formaron cuando era de verdad pobre en mentales, era hidrógeno, helio y un poquito de otras cositas, no habían explotado las primeras estrellas, no había contaminación de material que se hicieron de otros elementos que se hicieron de la fusión. Luego, cuando explotaron seguramente de la fisión de los elementos, ¿cuáles eran las características de ellas?, se esperaría que fueran mucho más masivas que lo que encontramos ahora. Es, finalmente, ver en teoría lo que nosotros suponíamos había sucedido en etapas tempranas del universo, ahora con observaciones y eso me parece súper importante por cumplir uno de los roles que tenía el Hubble, de ver si nuestro entendimiento, de las leyes físicas y como nosotros entendemos el universo, realmente, lo estamos observando.
¿Cuáles son los principales desafíos de la astronomía actual?
Eso va a depender de a quien le pregunten, depende del área, también, incluso, de la misma sociedad astronómica a la que se pregunte. Por ejemplo, Estados Unidos hace un survey de 10 años, donde dice cuáles van a ser las líneas que se van a apoyar, con las metas científicas en los próximos 10 años, y así deciden qué misiones financiar, etc. Entonces, va a depender de cada comunidad. En lo que respecta a lo que yo más estudio, que son las estrellas más pequeñas, las enanas rojas, y todo lo que tiene que ver con exoplanetas, es intentar con los nuevos instrumentos, los nuevos telescopios, que también se están construyendo en Chile, encontrar de verdad una segunda Tierra alrededor de otra estrella, determinar características de atmósferas, por ejemplo, de planetas terrestres que se han encontrado y ver si se puede encontrar alguna señal de vida en alguno de estos buenos candidatos de tener características similares a la Tierra, que son rocosos, pequeños, que se encuentren a una distancia de su estrella, en la que podría existir agua líquida en su superficie, etc. Y Chile, en ese sentido, va a jugar un rol súper importante porque, como decía antes, se están construyendo telescopios Ojos Gigantes en el norte de Chile, los cuales están pensados por el área exoplanetas para la caracterización de buenos candidatos a segundas Tierras. Eso sería, en mi área. Si uno le pregunta a personas sobre supernova, te van a decir uno de los desafíos es otro y es probable que te nombre el observatorio Vera Rubin, que también se está construyendo aquí en Chile y va a tomar datos continuos del cielo nocturno, donde hay todo un desafío que tiene que ver con Data Science, la ciencia de datos y el Data Mining también, que va a traer todos estos datos continuamente. Lo que vamos a ver ahí es el universo transiente, todo lo que cambia el universo, es como hacer una película y ver como las estrellas van cambiando noche a noche o los objetos celestes, con esto va a ver un cambio para todo lo que es transiente: supernovas, estrellas que varían en luminosidad, incluso objetos que son binarios que cambian también en luminosidad por ser sistemas múltiples, etc.
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