El renacimiento del fascismo italiano

David Allen Harvey

Según el filósofo George Santayana, “los que no aprenden de la historia están condenados a repetirla”.  Los votantes de Italia acaban de comprobar este dicho. A un siglo de la llegada al poder del dictador Benito Mussolini, Fratelli d’Italia (Hermanos de Italia), el nuevo partido del fascismo italiano, terminó en primer lugar en las elecciones parlamentarias del domingo 25 de septiembre, con un 26% de los sufragios emitidos. Su líder, la joven diputada Giorgia Meloni, intentará formar una coalición con otros partidos derechistas, incluyendo la Forza Italia del exmandatario Silvio Berlusconi, para convertirse en la primera mujer en ocupar el cargo de primer ministro de Italia. ¿Como explicar tal resultado?

La victoria de Fratelli d’Italia forma parte del auge de un nuevo populismo autoritario de derecha en gran parte del mundo democrático de occidente. Figuras como Viktor Orban en Hungría, Recep Erdogan en Turquía, Rodrigo Duterte y Ferdinand Marcos hijo en Filipinas, Jaír Bolosonaro en Brasil y, sobre todo, Donald Trump en los Estados Unidos usan las herramientas de la democracia (reuniones masivas, franja electoral, clips virales en redes sociales, etc.) contra las instituciones y los valores de la democracia misma. Las sociedades liberales, con sus libertades de expresión, de prensa, y de asambleas públicas, son particularmente vulnerables a tales movimientos parásitos, que en casos extremos logran, paulatinamente, y sin violencia abierta, destruir o debilitar las instituciones democráticas para crear un nuevo régimen autoritario. Incluso, en países donde no logra apoyo mayoritario, la nueva ola de populismo de derecha ha dejado huellas profundas, como las campañas presidenciales de Marine Le Pen en Francia y de José Antonio Kast en Chile.

Las causas del nuevo populismo autoritario son múltiples, y se pueden catalogar en factores tecnológicos, factores sociales, y factores intelectuales. Entre los primeros se destacan el nuevo poder de las redes sociales, que sobrepasan los medios de comunicación tradicionales y facilitan la difusión de fake news. Como la Hidra de la mitología griega, los fake news son casi imposibles de matar: por cada cabeza cortada, aparecen dos nuevas para seguir repitiendo las mentiras y distorsiones. Entre los factores sociales se encuentra la globalización, que acorta las distancias y borra las fronteras entre los países; la inmigración de refugiados desamparados desde países pobres o en crisis hacia los países más ricos (por lo menos en forma relativa) y los cambios socioeconómicos que producen inseguridad entre las clases medias tradicionales, que pierden perder su estatus y sus privilegios. Entre los factores ideológicos están el neoliberalismo, que fomenta el individualismo extremo y destruye la noción del bien común, y un nuevo nacionalismo xenofóbico, que culpa a los inmigrantes y a las organizaciones multinacionales de amenazar la soberanía nacional. Las condiciones del mundo del siglo XXI han creado una tormenta perfecta para la combinación de estos factores. En muchas partes del mundo, la clase media se siente amenazada por el cambio económico, la “invasión” de inmigrantes, y la incapacidad (real o percibida) de la clase política gobernante de enfrentar los problemas sociales.  Por lo tanto, muchos de ellos se convierten en presa fácil por las teorías conspiracionistas que se difunden por las redes sociales. Muchos de nuestros lectores, tal vez, se reconozcan en esta breve descripción.

Sin embargo, hay factores específicos del caso italiano que facilitaron el auge de los Fratelli.  Comparado con países vecinos como Francia y Gran Bretaña; Italia tiene tradiciones democráticas relativamente débiles. El reino de Italia, producto de la unificación italiana de los años 1859-1870, fue una monarquía constitucional con sufragio extremadamente limitado, con desigualdades muy fuertes entre regiones y entre clases sociales, y con altos niveles de corrupción y de clientelismo. Son padrones de conducta que se repitieron en los países del Cono Sur a los que llegaron muchos inmigrantes italianos en aquellos años, particularmente en Brasil y Argentina. Uno de los padres de la nueva patria, Massimo d’Azeglio, declaró tras la unificación: “Ya que hemos hecho Italia, tendremos que hacer a los italianos”. El proyecto de construcción nacional aun fue incompleto cuando Italia se lanzó, muy precipitadamente, en la Primera Guerra Mundial, para tratar de anexar la “Italia irredenta,” territorios fronterizos como Trieste y Trentino que aun formaban parte del imperio de los Habsburgo. El país no estaba preparado para la guerra moderna, ni para los fuertes conflictos políticos que soltaría. Italia en la posguerra estaba polarizada entre una nueva extremaderecha, que encontró que las ganancias del país en los tratados de paz eran pocos considerando sus sacrificios, y una nueva extremaizquierda, que buscaba transformación social al modelo de la nueva Unión Soviética.

Después de dos años de conflictos llenos de violencia y odio, el llamado Biennio Rosso, una gran parte de la elite italiana creía que el país estaba al borde del abismo. Buscaron un hombre fuerte quien gobernara con mano dura, que protegiera los intereses del gran capital, pero que también pudiera movilizar a las masas. Lo encontraron en Benito Mussolini, un exsocialista, organizador y periodista, quien había unificado a los diversos squadristi (grupos de matones, muchos de ellos veteranos de la guerra ya acostumbrados a la violencia). Mussolini tenía el poder de la calle, y con su famosa marcha hacia Roma a fines del año 1922, presionó al rey Víctor Emanuel III de nombrarle primer ministro para imponer el orden. Después de su llegada al poder, usó las instituciones del estado para circular propaganda e intimidar a sus opositores, creando una dictadura personalista con el título Il Duce. Como los antiguos emperadores romanos, dio pan y circo al pueblo, lanzando iniciativas como el Doppolavoro, una masiva organización estatal que presentó conciertos, excursiones, y eventos deportivos, adoptó políticas corporativas para crear empleos y brindar remuneraciones a sus colaboradores, y militarizó a la sociedad, con organizaciones paramilitares para la juventud (los Figli della Lupa, o “hijos de la Loba”, el símbolo de la antigua república romana) y decoraciones cuasi-militares para las madres de familias numerosas.

La Italia de hoy tiene cierta amnesia sobre la era Mussolini o, mejor dicho, la catástrofe de su fin, con el colapso total del país, la ejecución pública del dictador, y la guerra entre Alemania y Estados Unidos que devastó gran parte de su territorio, lo que ayudó a ocultar sus veinte años en el poder. Hay que reconocer que, sobre todo en los años 30, Mussolini fue una figura admirada y hasta querida por su pueblo. Fue el hombre que impuso el orden e hizo que los trenes llegasen a la hora. El pueblo italiano lo siguió en todo: la conquista brutal de Etiopía en 1935 para vengar una derrota del siglo anterior, la intervención en la Guerra Civil Española a favor de Franco, la alianza con el Tercer Reich de Hitler, y el lanzamiento, de libre voluntad, de una nueva guerra mundial. Pero la retórica bélica de Mussolini ocultó la falta de preparación de Italia para la guerra, sobre todo comparado con sus aliados ambiciosos y agresivos, y el conflicto llevó el país a la ruina. Mussolini cayó del poder en 1943, cuando el mismo rey, quien le había instalado veintiún años antes, lo destituyó para buscar la paz con las potencias anglófonas. Sus aliados alemanes lo “rescataron” o, más bien, lo secuestraron, y lo instalaron en el norte como un mero títere nazi, hasta el momento de su muerte violenta al final de la guerra. 

El sufrimiento extremo que padeció Italia en los años 1943-45, tanto a manos de sus exaliados y de sus “libertadores”, dio lugar a la narrativa principal de la experiencia italiana de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Según la conciencia pública dominante de la posguerra, Italia fue una víctima de la guerra, y su papel anterior de victimario pasó al olvido. Por lo tanto, Italia nunca ha enfrentado realmente su pasado fascista y los crímenes que cometió el régimen de Mussolini en el nombre de todos los italianos. En Alemania, el peso de la memoria pública sobre el legado nazi ha, en cierto sentido, inoculado al país contra el neofascismo, y la extemaderecha alemana, aunque presente, está bastante más débil que en muchos de sus vecinos. Nada de eso pasó en Italia, donde un partido de centro, la Democracia Cristiana, gobernó durante más de cuarenta años, con toda la corrupción y clientelismo de la época pre-fascista. Por olvido y por descuido, los valores democráticos declinaron, y gran parte del público se tornó en contra de la clase política. La elección de Silvio Berlusconi en los años 90 dio el primer anuncio de lo que sería una ola enorme y peligrosa del populismo autoritario del siglo XXI.

¿Y ahora qué? Solo el tiempo dirá. Los neofascistas italianos de hoy no tienen apoyo mayoritario, y tendrán que gobernar en coalición con otros partidos de derecha, que podrían servir de freno a sus ambiciones. Las instituciones de la Unión Europea, que han intentado poner límites al autoritarismo de Orban en Hungría, harán lo posible para obligar al nuevo gobierno italiano a respetar los derechos civiles y democráticos de sus ciudadanos. La integración europea y la globalización han hecho de Italia un país rico, y es de esperar que Meloni y sus colegas no quieran matar a la gallina que pone sus huevos de oro. Pero, al final, va depender del pueblo italiano el preservar y fortalecer su democracia.

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